Written for knowledgeX by: Tamer Elogueil

Theory Background

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology first proposed by Abraham Maslow, an American psychologist, in his 1943 paper “A Theory of Human Motivation.” This theory is also known as Self-Actualisation Theory. It consists of a five-tier model of human needs, often displayed as a hierarchical pyramid. Maslow emphasised the importance of focusing on the positive qualities in people. A general psychology survey published in 2002 ranked Maslow's hierarchy model as the 10th most cited in the 20th century.

At the time of its development, Maslow's theory emerged in response to prevailing theories of motivation, such as Freud's psychoanalytic theory and Skinner's behaviourist approach. Maslow sought to provide a more holistic understanding of human motivation by focusing on positive qualities in people and emphasising the importance of self-actualisation.

Historical Context

Maslow's theory was developed during a period of significant intellectual and social change. World War II and its aftermath prompted a re-evaluation of human needs and motivations. Maslow's emphasis on self-actualisation and the pursuit of personal fulfilment reflected broader cultural shifts towards individualism and self-expression in post-war Western societies.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Maslow proposed a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as a hierarchical pyramid. He used the terms “physiological,” “safety,” “love and belonging,” “esteem,” and “self-actualisation” to describe the pattern through which human motivations evolve. The lowest levels of the hierarchical pyramid consist of the most basic needs, while the top of the pyramid represents the most complex needs. Accordingly, the lower needs must be satisfied first before individuals can attend to needs higher up. According to Maslow, individuals progress through these stages sequentially, with lower-level needs taking precedence over higher-level ones.

Deficiency Needs and Growth Needs

Maslow divided the five-stage model into “Deficiency Needs” and “Growth Needs.” The first four levels are often referred to as Deficiency Needs (D-Needs), which arise due to deprivation. The top level is known as Growth or Being Needs (B-Needs). These needs do not stem from a lack of something but rather from a desire to grow as an individual.

The motivation to fulfil Deficiency Needs becomes stronger the longer they are unmet or denied. For example, the longer a person goes without rest, the more they will need to rest. Conversely, the motivation decreases as these needs are met. In contrast, motivation for Growth Needs increases as they are met and may become stronger once engaged.

Although Maslow’s model suggests that lower needs must be satisfied before higher needs, this progress can be disrupted by failures at the lower levels. For instance, job loss or divorce may cause an individual to fluctuate between the levels of the hierarchy.

The Maslow’s hierarchy five-tier model

Let's examine the five-tier hierarchical levels within the pyramid:

Physiological Needs

These are the biological universal human needs for survival, such as food, drink, air, shelter, clothing, warmth, and sleep. If these needs are not satisfied, the human body will not function optimally. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important, and other needs will be secondary until these are met. Humans must fulfil these needs first to pursue intrinsic satisfaction.

Safety Needs

Once physiological needs are met, safety needs become primary where they become more complex. These include safety and security, order, law, financial security, and health and wellness. Together, physiological and safety needs constitute the basic human needs in Maslow’s hierarchy.

Love and Belonging Needs

The third level involves feelings of belonging and interpersonal relationships, such as friendship, intimacy, trust, acceptance, affection, and love. It also includes a sense of affiliation with groups like family, friends, and teams. Fulfilment of these needs reduces feelings of loneliness, depression, and anxiety.

Esteem Needs

At this stage, gaining respect and appreciation becomes crucial. Maslow classified esteem needs into two categories:

• Esteem for oneself (e.g., dignity, achievement, mastery, independence)
• Desire for reputation (e.g., respect from others, status, prestige)

Individuals who satisfy these needs feel they are making a contribution to the world.

Self-Actualisation Needs

This level involves realising one’s full potential, self-fulfilment, and personal growth. Known as Growth or Being Needs (B-Needs), these do not stem from a lack of something but from a desire to grow. As Maslow stated, it is "a desire to become everything one is capable of becoming." This involves the full utilisation and exploitation of talents, capabilities, and potential.

Theory refining

Maslow refined his theory over several decades (1943, 1962, 1987), highlighting that the order in the hierarchy is not as rigid as initially presented. The order of needs may vary based on external circumstances or individual differences. For some individuals, the need for self-esteem might precede the need for love.

Cross-Cultural Perspectives

While Maslow's theory has been influential globally, scholars have noted variations in the prioritisation and interpretation of needs across different cultures. For example, collectivist cultures may place greater emphasis on communal needs and interdependence, while individualistic cultures may prioritise self-actualisation and personal autonomy.

Contemporary Applications

Maslow's theory continues to inform various fields, including education, healthcare, organisational management, and personal development. In education, educators use the hierarchy to understand students' motivations and tailor instructional strategies accordingly. In healthcare, clinicians consider patients' needs hierarchy when developing treatment plans and promoting holistic well-being.

Critiques and Revisions

Critics have raised concerns about the universality and rigidity of Maslow's hierarchy, arguing that it may not accurately capture the complexities of human motivation across different contexts. Additionally, scholars have proposed revisions to the theory, such as integrating cultural factors or accounting for the dynamic nature of needs over time.

Empirical Evidence

Empirical research on Maslow's theory has yielded mixed findings. While some studies have supported the hierarchical structure of needs, others have found inconsistencies or failed to replicate Maslow's predictions. Furthermore, research has highlighted the importance of considering individual differences and situational factors in understanding human motivation.

Integration with Other Theories

Maslow's theory intersects with and complements other theories of motivation, such as Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, Deci and Ryan's Self-Determination Theory, and Vroom's Expectancy Theory. These theories offer complementary perspectives on the factors that drive human behaviour and satisfaction in different contexts.

Practical Implications

Practitioners can apply Maslow's theory in various settings to enhance motivation, well-being, and personal development. For example, educators can create supportive learning environments that address students' basic needs while fostering opportunities for self-expression and growth. Similarly, managers can use the hierarchy to understand employees' motivations and design incentive systems that promote job satisfaction and productivity.

Case Studies

Case studies provide real-world examples of how Maslow's theory is applied in practice. For instance, a case study might explore how a healthcare organisation redesigned its patient care approach to align with Maslow's hierarchy, resulting in improved patient outcomes and staff satisfaction.

Future Directions

Future research in motivational psychology may explore new dimensions of human needs and motivations, such as the role of technology, social media, and globalization in shaping individuals' aspirations and values. Additionally, researchers may develop more nuanced models of motivation that integrate cultural, social, and individual factors in a dynamic framework.

Ethical Considerations

Practitioners should consider ethical implications when applying Maslow's theory, such as ensuring equitable access to resources and opportunities for self-actualisation. Additionally, practitioners should be mindful of potential cultural biases and stereotypes that may influence interpretations of needs and motivations.